The nuclear taboo is another example of a regulative norm (prescribing non-use), but it was also a constitutive norm (associating the taboo with the idea that civilized nations would not resort to using nuclear weapons) (Tannenwald 1999). Google Scholar. Hilde van Meegdenburg argues that in the case of Denmark, the use of PMSCs has been limited because it is not seen to align with Danish values. Constructivism and the nature of international relations Constructivism efforts to give a better understanding of international relations by its method which is based on social theory. Both compliance and contestation studies have broadened our understanding of norm dynamics allowing norms themselves to change and exploring the conditions under which norms will elicit conformance but they do so in different ways. Neumann, I. Constructing IR: The third generation. In A. M. Sookermany (Ed. Berger, T. U. This paper's argument begins by assuming that constructivism is a contested concept. (2019). Shannon (2000:294) makes a sophisticated argument along these lines, claiming that due to the fuzzy nature of norms and situations, and due to the imperfect interpretation of such norms by human agency, oftentimes norms are what states (meaning state leaders) make of them. Such an interpretation of constructivist thought moves him to make a familiar argument about the split between norm-based and interest-based behavioral impulses (Shannon 2000:298302; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007). Main Theorists. The International Affairs Forum (2020), states that constructivists use both material and non-material explanations of social constructs. Understanding compliance with and contestation over norms either in isolation or together can be enhanced by paying more attention to the prior understanding of who is in the community. 115135). The second big claim of constructivism is that ideas matter with rationalist theorizing, material factors take precedence. International relations require various perspectives to comprehend the complexity of the interactions that take place in the international sphere. Constructivism is the claim that significant aspects of international relations are historically and socially contingent (subject to change), rather than inevitable consequences of human nature or other essential characteristics of world politics. For neorealists, who take a structural explanation of international relations and argue that anarchy shapes world politics, states are like units distinguished only by their distribution of power and capabilities states were primed to behave the same way because the anarchic structure instructs them so. At the core of social constructivism is the idea that international politics - and indeed human relations - are "socially constructed" rather than "given." Its core ideas are based around three ontological positions relating to identity, ideas, and mutual constitution. An unnecessary war. Doing so has opened up the field to bring in different explanations of global politics that can delve deeper into how culture and identity play a role in determining state interests. Sandholtz (2008) himself proposes a cyclical model to explain the evolution of norms prohibiting wartime plunder. Rasmussen, M. V. (2005). Social constructivism is well suited to address continuous changes in European integration. Presents a social constructivist reading of securitization theory that, besides the Copenhagen school, also includes other constructivist interpretations of security that draw on securitization and speech act theory. Bibliographical References Adler, E. (1997). A number of recent studies have examined just this tension and the range of empirical topics being considered from this perspective is now quite broad. Steele, B. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. Constructivism argues that culture, social structures and human institutional frameworks matter. Allen, J. Norm shift around the idea of sovereignty can be seen in the pillars of R2P that say that if a state cannot or will not stop human rights abuses within its own territory, other states have a compelling reason to intervene. Norm emergence studies were concerned with how ideas come to achieve normative status (e.g., Nadelmann 1990; Klotz 1995; Finnemore 1996; Finnemore and Sikkink 1998) and why some ideas become norms and others do not (e.g., Cortell and Davis 1996, 2000; Finnemore and Sikkink 1998; Legro 2000; Payne 2001). The basics of constructivism 1516). The inescapable tension between general rules and specific actions ceaselessly casts up disputes which in turn generate arguments, which then reshape both rules and conduct. The logical chain from general norms to contestation is not long. Norms and identity in world politics (pp. Both of these critiques run afoul of constructivist logic yet are legitimate given how norms were conceptualized in the initial wave of empirical constructivist work. In more historical examples, states that chose neutrality during times of war did so against strong material factors that would have potentially granted them safety and survival had they opted to join one side or the other. Constructivism is the new approach to International Relations. Yet Saddam did not want to appear weak to enemies such as Iran (Allen 2009). The scope of military conduct can also be institutionalized, and constructivism provides a way to understand such processes. Some scholars have sought a way through or out of the logic of appropriateness/logic of consequences debate by following March and Olsens (1998) suggestions about scrutinizing the relationship between the logics, especially possible temporal sequencing of the logics, theorizing that sometimes actors calculate optimal material courses and at others they reason about their normative/identity obligations (Shannon 2000; Nielson, Tierney, and Weaver 2006; see Muller 2004 for a caution on this synthesis strategy). How is it that western states like the UK, for example, do not fear thousands of nuclear weapons that the USA possesses, but worries about states like Iran or North Korea, who hold far fewer nuclear weapons? The international system is defined by anarchy. For liberals, the belief that liberal ideas such as democracy and the free market are ideas to be shared to make the world a better place suggests a transfer of ideas rather than an exchange of ideas. In A. M. Sookermany (Ed. Rationalist critiques relate to constructivist methodology and epistemological claims. Sending goes so far as to claim that the logic of appropriateness is incompatible with constructivist thought because it violates the tenets of mutual constitution and does not allow for change he contends (2002:458) that in the logic of appropriateness, social structure has objective authority over actors, not allowing for the kind of reflection necessary for mutual constitution and change. Constructivism focuses on the social context in which international relations exist. 4. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. In contrast to these other approaches, constructivism is a social theory (or family of social theories) or theory of process (Adler 1997, 2003; Checkel 1998; Wendt 1999; Hoffmann 2009), which means it necessarily lacks a priori commitments on key elements of international relations theories the identity, nature, interests, and behavior of important actors and the structure of world politics. From the perspective of those who work on norms, there are very good reasons to focus on static and specific norms when analyzing international relations. It then turns to a discussion of two directions currently being explored in social norms research and the open questions that remain. Japan and identity change: Why it matters in international relations. Thucydides the constructivist. Germany and Japan, for example, had antimilitaristic strategic cultures after the Second World War which impacted their military engagement and organization (Berger 1996; Hagstrm and Gustafsson 2015). Pouliot (2008:259) argues that most of what people do in world politics, as in any other social field, does not derive from conscious deliberation or thoughtful reflection. This has implications for the concept of anarchy, the agent-structure relationship, and national interests, but all three of these areas of research are also approachable through non-constructivist means. This also goes to the foundation of questions of the causes of war. (Eds.). If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Only those with equal power could make such demands, and the Athenians make good on their threat to destroy the Melians, declaring that might is right and the weak suffer what they must (Thucydides 1951, pp. Where liberals would declare that the west won, proving capitalism and democracy were the only workable ways to organize societies, in a constructivist reading, the end of the Cold War was largely down to the changes that were taking place in the former Soviet Union under Gorbachev (Risse-Kappen 1994). Treating social norms as fully formed, static constructs, even for analytic convenience, underplayed this dynamism. Norms and Social Constructivism in International Relations | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies Social norms were conceptualized as aspects of social structure that emerged from the actions and beliefs of actors in specific communities; norms shaped those actions and beliefs by constituting actors' identities and interests. In his view, theories of cultures can not supplant theories of politics, and no casual theory of identity construction exists. Constructing institutional interests: EU and NATO enlargement. / (social) constructivism [1] [ ] [2] Second, analytic tractability is necessary and is no trivial accomplishment. Norms, identity, and national security in Germany and Japan. When ideas and behaviors differ over time or space, trends that once looked solid and consistent can shift as well. In M. Evangelista & N. Tannenwald (Eds. Clearly this is a continuum because if agents were truly independent from or entirely dependent upon social structures, we would not be talking about constructivism. (1951). This realization was part of what prompted the serious focus on domestic political/normative contexts in much of this literature. This was seen as a backward step and a challenge to the taboo norm that had developed over preceding decades. Kurki, M., & Sinclair, A. Social constructivism is a school of thought in International Relations (IR) theory. Regional order and peaceful change: Security communities as a via media in international relations theory. (1999). While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to adequately cover these approaches, the Baumann chapter in this volumediscusses securitization; for works on ontological security that speak to international security and aspects of the military, see Mitzen (2006), Krahmann (2018), and Mlksoo (2018).) As Farrell tells us, liberals and realists do not agree on what prevents war is it democracy (as liberals would contend?) His (2000:2) logic of arguing is designed to clarify how actors develop a common knowledge and how norms and ideas can have a constitutive effect while retaining the reflection and choice Sending (2002:458) deems necessary for mutual constitution and change. Hopf, T. (1998). The influence of Prussian philosopher Immanuel Kant (17241805) on constructivist thought can be seen regarding ideas about knowledge and objectivity, in that knowledge of the world is filtered through frameworks of understanding. or alliances (as realists would argue?). Social Constructivism Summary Notes. American Political Science Review, 95(3), 547560. In eliciting conformance and stabilizing expectations norms do not and cannot define all possible behavior, especially when a norm first emerges. Philosophy of military sciences. Agius, C. (2022). Learning Objectives. Schmidt, B. Ideas about whether actors reason about norms or through norms can be linked to underlying behavioral logics that constructivists have devised and developed since the inception of the approach. Constructivists also emphasize how domestic norms and values play a role in how states and their militaries approach conflict or understand the causes of conflict. This dynamism, it should also be noted, may not always be positive ideas about security can also regress or become less normative or progressive. During the First World War, Belgium, driven by a sense of honor, chose to fight Germany even though the Belgians risked and experienced catastrophic consequences (Steele 2008b). However, some scholars found the mode of action where actors consciously reason about what is appropriate to be a problematic foundation for constructivist thought. Indeed, norms, identity, and ideas are key factors in constructivist theory. The Pacific Review, 28(1), 122. (2001). Grand strategy, strategic culture, practice: The social roots of Nordic defence. It is ideas, according to constructivists, that play a large role in determining how actors act. 12). Ontological security in international relations. Abstract. Does R2P matter? Yet, Wittgenstein's notion of family resemblances helps in understanding why an essence of constructivism need not be found. States may join military alliances to bandwagon with stronger powers, as realists tell us. In the attempt to understand when and where norms are likely to be efficacious, these authors stake out a position on the reasoning aboutreasoning through norms spectrum. As states interact with other actors in the international system, their ideas and identity can change over time, which can produce a more dynamic understanding of international relations. The norms-oriented work that followed this initial burst of activity in the 2000s built upon the success that was achieved, but also changed the trajectory of research on social norms in world politics to include broader notions of norm dynamics. Early constructivist work in the 1980s and early 1990s sought to establish a countervailing approach to the material and rational theories that dominated the study of international relations. A Social Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Argument," European Journal of International Relations 1 (December 1995)CrossRef Google Scholar. Social theory of international politics. Likewise, understanding sovereignty means recognizing the principle of non-interference in another states internal affairs, recognition of a state as an entity and associated rights that come with that: all states recognize each other as sovereign, despite the huge differences in their ability to exert internal control and exercise international power (Farrell 2002, p. 54; Wendt 1992; Hopf 1998). However, when defined as ideas or expectations about appropriate behavior for actors with a given identity (Finnemore and Sikkink 1998:891), it became an ideal conceptual tool for operationalizing processes of social construction. Constructivist International Relations theorists tend to use concepts of socially constructed identities, ideas and norms to empirically and analytically examine . These studies were inclined to treat social norms as independent variables and show how some political behavior is made possible or constrained by such ideational factors (e.g., Barkin and Cronin 1994; Klotz 1995; Finnemore 1996, 2003; Katzenstein 1996; Legro 1996; Price 1997; Tannenwald 1999). As we have seen in chapter 4, various factors can influence a country's interpretation of a convention. As one notable example, Keohane (1988:392) critiqued this new perspective by arguing that the greatest weakness of the reflective school lies not in deficiencies in their critical arguments but in the lack of a clear reflective research program that could be employed by students of world politics. At the forefront of the initial empirical push in constructivist research were the norms-oriented and identity approaches. Constructivist security studies: Portrait of a research program. Some constructivists stress reflection and consider that agents are able to reason about the various pulls on their possible behavior (either solely normative/ideational pulls or those in addition to material/strategic pulls). This logic structured seminal empirical work that endeavored to show how ideational and normative factors could explain puzzles in world politics (e.g., Klotz 1995; Finnemore 1996). Norms and regulatory instruments around the use of PMSCs and in what capacity they are used have emerged with the view to regulating them (Percy 2016, p. 221). Social phenomenon such as states, alliances or international institutions, are not thought to exist independent of human meaning and action. Th e article argues that constructivism suff ers from the same . 3. Post modernism // Refer political theory (section 1A) also. Cham: Springer. In addition, norms-oriented research and the constructivist literature writ large has begun to concern itself more with research questions that fall out from constructivist thought independently without as much reference to competing approaches (Checkel 2004). Critical methodology and constructivism. Social norms were considered, in many ways, the medium of mutual constitution. The second is compliance or diffusion actors from different normative communities seek to enlarge their communities or to hold on to extant norms in the face of external normative challenges and disputes that arise can lead to normative change in both communities. One set of norm dynamics may be implied when one seeks to understand how an actor outside a normative community interacts with norms when it is the target of socialization. Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, International Studies. New York: Columbia University Press. These dual visions of normative dynamics are likely related, but the norms literature has yet to describe how. The identity of agents such as states matter because identity helps determine national interests. Those facts that rely on human agreement (institutional facts) differ from brute facts (like mountains, for example), which do not need human institutions for their existence. This social learning aspect differs from realisms prescriptive approach that says nations will follow the strongest militaries to develop their strength and technological prowess with the anarchic structure of the international system guiding this logic. When actors follow the logic of arguing, they seek common understandings through discourse and dialogue. Constructivism accounts for this issue by arguing that the social world is of our making (Onuf 1989). ), Epistemic communities, constructivism, and international environmental politics (pp. Christine Agius . 2. much IR-theory, and especially neorealism is materialist; it focuses on how the distribution of material power denes balances of power between states and explains the behaviour of states. Just as liberalism was a response to realism, economic structuralism is a response to liberalism. In other words, they worry that mutual constitution implies that actors have a difficult time stepping outside the bounds of their social/normative context to decide what is right to do. Cooperation and Conflict, 40, 1. Contemporary Security Policy, 26(2), 335355. Steele, B., Gould, H., & Kessler, O. In the context of the global war on terror, US efforts to extract intelligence from suspected terrorists led to the use of enhanced interrogation techniques which was widely seen to have abrogated or contested the global prohibition on the use of torture (Steele 2008a; see also Birdsall (2016) who argues that it worked to strengthen the anti-torture norm). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Initial constructivist studies of social norms can be divided into three areas: normative, socialization, and normative emergence. According to this approach, the behaviour of humans is determined by their identity, which itself is shaped by society's values, history, practices, and institutions. Yet this dominant view of international relations was significantly challenged by Alexander Wendt in the early 1990s with the simple premise: anarchy is what states make of it (Wendt 1992, pp. 55K views 2 years ago International Relations Constructivism is one of critical theories in IR criticizing the classical theories. This is natural given that this work is still in the area of socialization. The superior military capabilities of the USA were a significant material advantage that should have compelled Iraq to avoid invasion. From this mainly structural perspective, social norms were conceptualized as an alternative to rationalist/materialist variables in explanations of world politics. Jacobsen (2003:60) recognizes the need to theorize this relationship observing that, constructivists of all stripes seem to agree that it is vital to theorize links between subjective experience and social/institutional structures. The two versions of norm dynamics discussed above posit different conceptions of the intersubjective/subjective relationship, but neither has developed the final answer to this open question. Douglas, B. Conventional constructivism is not interested in replacing one reality of world politics with another. First, both types of studies may benefit from more attention to the notion of intersubjective communities and their boundaries. Rather it seeks to explore how the current reality evolved (Farrell 2002, p. 59). In The New Constructivism in International Relations Theory, David McCourt offers a refreshing take on Constructivism by reviewing old, present, and new concepts in Constructivism and connects them pragmatically with methodological examples.Moreover, this book functions as a handbook on 'how to constructivist' in an era defined and dominated by new advances in computational social science. Even among security communities such as the Nordic states, different strategic cultures can be found because they are informed by a range of historical and cultural experiences, with different experiences of war and conflict, membership of alliances, and other factors (see special issues of Cooperation and Conflict (2005) and Global Affairs (2018) for further discussions). Prominent in the initial empirical norms research in this vein were studies that examined how given norms in a particular community diffused to actors outside the community (e.g., Risse-Kappen 1994; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink 1999; Checkel 2001; Johnston 2001). Bandwagon with stronger powers, as realists would argue? ) third generation norms,,! Institutions, are not thought to exist independent of human meaning and action static. 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